Dual Boot Support

In a dual boot configuration you essentially have two OS on the Computer.  (Window 98 and Window 2000).  At boot time you have the option of selecting which OS you want to use.  Both OS can share the
same disk space (provided they use compatible formats like FAT32 for 98/2000 or in some cares can use sap rate disk.

What is the Virtual FAT

An extension of the FAT file system that was Introduced with window 95.  It argument-ed the 8.3 file naming convention and allowed file names with up 255 character.  It created two names for each file. Along name and an 8.3 compatible name so that older programs could still access files.  When VFAT was incorporated into windows 95.  It use 32 bits code for improved disk access while keeping the 16 bit naming system for backward compatibility with FAT .  It also had the 2GB disk partition limitation.

What is resistor

Resistors offers resistance to the flow of current represented by  "R" and its units is "Ohm".
Factors affecting Resistors-

1. Resistivity of a meterial.
2. Length:-  Resistance is directly proportional to length.
3. Cross sectional area:-  Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross sectional area (A).
4. Temperature:- all material change resistance by the same amount when temperature changes.

Type of Resistors:-

1. Fixed Resistors
2. Variable Resistors

Type of Fixed Resistors-  

1. Carbon
2. wire Wound
3. Fusible Resistors

Type of Variable Resistors-   

1. Rheostate
2. Potentiometer 

Carbon Resistors-  It is made of carbon and graphite mixed on the powered isolating materiel as a binder.

The resistence value is from 1 Ohm to 20 Ohm.

           Power rating is 1/4 , 1/2, 2 watt.

Wire wound Resistors-  The resistance wire is wrapped round and isolating core power rating 5 watt to 100 watt the wire may be tonguston or maganin.

Fusible Resistors-  When power rating is exceeded fusible resistors burn out used for dual purpos as a resistors and as a fuse wire.

Variable Resistors:-  It can be corben  or wire wound resistors. There  are two type of variable resistors.

Measurement:-  Measure the value with the equipment.

Example:-   Multimeter

Regaining Computer Hard disk drive

1.  Open My Computer.
2.  Right-click on the hard disk drive that you wish to regain hard-disk drive space.
     Example: right click on the C drive.
3.  Click Properties.
4.  Within the disk clean -up button located next to the pie-chart.
5.  Window will scan the computer for all files available to cleanpup.
6. Regaining Computer Hard-disk drive Once in the Disk-cleanup window check each of the boxes (except "compress old
     files") that are taking disk space and click OK and then yes if you wish to proceed. 

Windows 2000/NT system files

Boot.ini-  Define the location of the Windows NT and Windows 2000 system files.

Ntldr-  is responsible for loading the operating system.

Bootsects.dos-  The bootsects.dos files holds the boot sector information of any other operating system that are loaded on the system.

NTdetect.com-  This files is responsible for detecting hardware and building a hardware list.

NTbotted.sys-  This files is used only when the system boots from a SCST device that does not have a BIOs installed.

NTuser.dat-  The NTuser.dat files contains configuration information specific to each user define on the system.  Each user to successfully logon to the system will have an NTuser.dat file created in the c:\Document and settings\Username folder.
When the user logon to the system, the information in the NTusedr.dat file is placed in the HKEY_USER subtree of the registry.

Major Operation Utilities

Defreg.exe-  Fregmentation of the disk is double whammy-not only does it slow the system down because has hard disk has to work harder to retrieve that files the increased work load can literally wear the hard-disk out quicker then it would otherwise so, defregmenting your hard drive does more then just speed the system up-it could literally mean that it last longer.

Fdisk.exe-  Fdisk the utility used to partition the hard disk.  A hard-disk has to have one formatted partition to hold the operating system .  This partition canbe created by Fdisk or by the window setup program when the booted from the CD ROM drive.

Windows XP Backup-  To access the Windows XP Backup utility.

Click start---------->All Programmes------------>Accessorries------------>System tools----->Backup

Backup strategies-  When it comes to choosing a type of backup there are three primery choice full incremented and differential backukp.

Full Backup-  Full backup can take they are often restricterd to weekly or m onthly use, though the increasing speed the capacity of backkup media is making nightly full backup a much more realistic proposition even for those with gigabytes of data.

Incremental backup-  An incrementaol backup includes onlyh the files that have changed or been created since the last full backup.  To determine whetgher a file has changed since the last full  backup, the backup software looks at the archieve bit seeting on the file.  Only files and folders with the archieve bit set to on will be backed up.  Once the file  has been backup. the archieve bit is cleared so that the file is not backed up again unnecessarily.

Differential Backup-  Differential backup the files trhat have changed since the last full backup.

Scandisk-  Scandisk is a widely used utility that is used to detect and correct file problems and errors on hard-disk and floppy disk.

CHKDSK-  chkdsk utility that is used to check and if necessary repair the file system on a hard-disk .  IKt is a DOS based utility.

Disk Cleanup-  The disk cleanup feature in Window 2000 the Window XP scanyour computer hard-disk looking for files such as temprary files and temprapry internet files that canbe deleted to freeup space on the disk.

Formet-  The formet command is the tools used in the final step to lprepare a disk for use. The formet command can be used on both hard disk and floopy disk.

Device Manager-  Device Manager to identify that hardware has been detected by the system, the resource used by device and whether the device is currently functioning.

If a resource conflict is shown in Device manager you can manually change resource to correct the conflict.

Device that are not recognize byh the system or that are incorrectly configurredc will be displayed with the yellow circle thatr contains either a question mark or an exsclamation point .  A red X indicates that the device has been disabled.

msconfig.exe-  The MSconfig utility enable you to safely modify legacy Windows files without making parmanent changes .  It allow you to castomise these files, determining which of the legacy file Windows to use.

Regedit.exe-  The regedit utility enable you to nevigate through the registry modify and search through the values in the registry and manually export the entire registry to create a backup.

Regedit is used by all version of windows since Windows 95.

Regedit canbe used to expert the regestry for backup purpose and emport that file when needed.

Sysdit.exe-  The sysdit utility lets ;you edit the legacy system files simultaneously, including the Auytoexec.bat, WIN.ini System.ini, Config.sys, and protocol.ini files.

Event Viewer-  The Event viewer utility in windows NT/2000/XP provides access to the various syhstem logs. These provide useful information on now the system is running oand issue that have occurred.

Attrib.exe-  This command line utility is used to change or view the attribute of a file or folder.

Extract.exe-  The extract utility is used to manually extract Windows installation files.

Attrib- The attrib command is used to and modify the attributes of a file.  File attribute include hidden (h)  system(s) read-only (r) and archieve (a) file attributes are discussed in detail later in the chapter.

You can view the attributes of an individual file by typing attrib followed by the file name. To add and remove the attributes from that file, use the + and - characters.

Example-  If you want to makea file called comptia.bat a hidden  and read - only file, you would type the following.

                                                      attrib +h  +r  comptia.bat


Copy-  The copy command used to coopy file from one location to another from the command line.

Example-  This command will copy a file from the floppy disk to the hard-disk.

                                                                copy a:\text.doc c:\







                                                      

Motherboard's Parts

सिस्टम पैनल कनेक्टर -  सेंट्रल प्रोसेसिंग  के ऊपर वाला हिस्सा जिसमे पावर स्विच लीड रिसेट स्विच  हार्ड डिस्क लीड कनेक्ट की जाती है /

यूनिवर्सल सीरियल बस - यह ९ पिन का होता है/ इसे कॉम्पेक्ट डिस्क रोम में कनेक्ट करते है/ इसे  लागाने से कोई भी कॉम्पेक्ट डिस्क आटोमेटिक रन करती है.

एनालॉग ऑडियो कनेक्टर -  चार पिन का होता है /

फ्रंट ऑडियो कनेक्टर -   ९ पिन का होता है/  माइक्रो फ़ोन स्पीकर  हेडफ़ोन कनेक्ट करते है/

गेम और मिडी कनेक्टर-  यह १५ या १६ पिन का होता था।  इसमें जॉयस्टिक जोड़ते थे /

A T X ट्वीन बोर्ड कनेक्टर -  यह कनेक्टर p 4  तक २०  का उसके बाद २४ पिन का आया है.

ATX पावर कनेक्टर-   कनेक्टर P 4  तक २० पिन का इसके  बाद २४ पिन का आया है /

सेंट्रल प्रोसेसिंग यूनिट और चेसिस फैन कनेक्टर  -  यह कनेक्टर P ४ तक ३ पिन का और उसके बाद ४ पिन का आया है/

सीरियल एडवांस टेक्नोलॉजी अटैचमेंट-  इसमे 7  कहीं कहीं 8 पिन होती हैं /  काले रंग का कनेक्टर  होता है और लाल रंग की केबल है /

आई   डी  इ  कनेक्टर -  यह ४० पिन का होता है लगभग हर कंप्यूटर में  है /  इसके द्वारा कॉम्पेक्ट  डिस्क और हार्ड डिस्क  को जोड़ते है/

एफ डी डी -   यह ३४ पिन का होता है /

जम्फर -  यह ३ पिन का होता है / यह हार्डवेयर की सेटिंग के काम आता है /

क्लियर सिमोस जम्फर-  सिस्टम में किसी भी प्रकार की सेटिंग हो जाती है/ जिसकी वजह से डिस्प्ले नहीं आता है बूट नहीं करता है /

यूनिवर्सल सीरियल बस बैकअप जम्फर   -   यह usb  को इनेबल और डिसएबल करने के काम आता है/

बायोस कॉन्फिग जम्फर -   बायोस में जाने के बाद कुछ सेटिंग नहीं कर पाते है / तो बायोस  जम्फर की स्थिती बदल कर कर सकते है/

एक्सपेंशन स्लॉट्स-

MCA स्लॉट्स -    १९८० में आया था/
ISA स्लॉट्स -  ८ बिट और १६ बिट का था /
EISA स्लॉट्स -  p 3  मदरबोर्ड में आया था इसमें ९८ पिन होती थी/
एक नौच होता था और  का होता था/
VESA स्लॉट्स-  ३२ बिट का था पुराने समय में चलता था PCI स्लॉट्स के बराबर था/

PCI स्लॉट्स -  ६४  बिट्स का स्लॉट्स है /सफ़ेद रंग का होता है/ स्पीड  मेगाहर्ट्ज़ है/

पीसीआई एक्सटेंडेड- इसे hp कॉम्पेक्ट और आई बी ऍम ने मिलकर बनाया था/इसमें केवल लेन कार्ड लगता है स्पीड ५३३ मेगा हर्ट्ज़ है/

PCI एक्सप्रेस-  यह आजकल आधुनिक तकनीक में काम करता है/  यह काले रंग का स्लॉट्स होता है/  इसमें डिस्प्ले कॉर्ड लगते है/ इसमें ८० मेगाहर्ट्ज़ स्पीड होती है/

एडवांस मॉडेम रेसर -  साउंड और मॉडेम के लिए यूज़  करते है /  मदरबोर्ड के किनारे काले रंग के बीच में सिंगल नौच होता है/

कम्युनिकेशन नेटवर्क रेसर -  मदरबोर्ड के साइड में होता है/ सिंगल नौच होता है इसमें लेनकार्ड और मॉडेम लगी होती है/

एक्सेलरेटेड ग्राफ़िक -कार्ड -  यह भूरे रंग का होता है / इसमें ग्राफ़िक कार्ड लगाते है/

सेंट्रल प्रोसेसिंग यूनिट सॉकेट और स्लॉट्स -  यह सॉकेट सेंट्रल प्रोसेसिंग यूनिट के लिए होता है/इसमें माइक्रो प्रोसेसर लगाया जाता है/  यह सॉकेटसॉकेट और स्लॉट्स   में काम करे है /

सुपर इनपुट /आउटपुट कंट्रोलर चिप-  मदरबोर्ड में सबसे बड़ी तीसरी बड़ी चिप होती है/
यह सारी इनपुट/आउटपुट डेटा लाने व ले जाने  करती है /

ऑडियो कंट्रोलर चिप-चिप चकोर होता है/ और मदरबोर्ड के किनारे है/  जिस कंपनी  का चिप होता है/ उसी कंपनी का ड्राइवर  यूज़ करते है/  यह चिप पेरीफेरल कॉम्पोनेन्ट इंटरफ़ेस स्लॉट्स और  कैबिनेट वाल के बीच में होता है/

फ़्लैश रैम बायोस -  ३२ पिन या ४० पिन की होती है/ बायोस में जाकर जब सेव है/ तो यह सारी ईएस चिप में सेव होती है/

माउस पोर्ट - हरा रंग का  होता है /

की बोर्ड -  बैगनी रंग का होता है/

 वीडिओ पोर्ट -  डी बी १५ फीमेल ५+५+५ लेटेस्ट वीडियो पोर्ट

 सीरियल पोर्ट -  डी बी ९ और डी बी १५ मेल कनेक्टर

मॉसफेट (मेटल ऑक्साइड सेमीकंडक्टर फील्ड इफ़ेक्ट ट्रांजिस्टर )-  मदरबोर्ड में छोटी- छोटी चिप होती है/ जिसमे ३ पिन होती है/जिसमे एक छोटी पिन होती है/जो आधी टूटी होती है/  जो वोल्टेज रेगुलेट  वजह से कब ज्यादा और कब काम सप्लाई की आवश्यकता होती है/ इसको मेन्टेन करती है/

 क्वायल -  गोल गोल तांबे के छल्ले लगे होते है/ इन  फ़िल्टर के लिए लगाया जाता है/


नार्थ ब्रिज -  मदरबोर्ड की सबसे  बड़ी चिप नार्थ चिप होती है/ जो  महत्वपूर्ण होती है/ जो  / इसका कार्य माइक्रोप्रोसेसर के डेटा को साउथ ब्रिज और A G P को डेटा लाने  जाने का  कार्य करती है/ A G P के रैम के आस पास मिलेगा/

कमांड देने पर इंस्ट्रक्शंस हार्ड-डिस्क पर जाएगा / हार्डडिस्क इंस्ट्रक्शंस आई डी  इ को देगा / आई डी इ  एफ एस बी के द्वारा नार्थ ब्रिज होते हुए  जायेगा /और प्रोसेसर उसे  जाएगा/ और डिस्प्ले कार्ड मॉनिटर  देगा /

Transistors

A Transistor (the construction of Transfer Resister) is an electric semiconductors (called electrode).  These are referred to as active component in contrast to “passive component” such as resistance or capacitors which ably have two electrodes (referred to as being “bipolor”).

A MOS (Metal Oxide Semiconductor) transistors is the most common type pof transistor used to designed integrated circuits MOS transistors have two negative charged area, respectively called sourced (which has almost zero charge) and drain (which has a 5v charge) separate by a positively charged region, called a substrate).  The substrate has a control electrode overlaid, called a gate that allows a charge to be applied to the substrate.

All signal of processor

Control Signal of Processor-  Control signal are electronic signals that orchestrate the various processor units participating in the execution of an instruction.  Central signals are sent using an element called a sequenced. For example read and write signal allows the memory to be told that the processor wants to read and write information.

Function Unit of Processor-  The processor the madeup of the group to interrelated units (or control  unit) Microprocessor architecture varies considerably from one design to another but the main elements of a microprocessor are as fallows.

                    A control unit that links the incoming data, decodes it, and sends it to the execution unit, the central unit is made up of the following elements.

Sequencer of Processor (or monitor and Logical Unit)-  That synchronize instruction execution with the clock speed .  It also sends control signals.

An execution Unit(or processing unit)-  That accomplish tasks assigned to it by the instructions unit.  The execution unit is made of the following elements.

The arithmetical and logical unit (written ALU).  The ALU perform basic arithmetical calculation and logic functions (And or Exclusive or etc).

The floating point unit (written FPU) that performs partial complex calculations which cannot be done by the arithmetical and logic unit.

Bus Management Unit-  That manage the flow of incoming and outgoing information and that interfaces with system RAM.

Cache Memory

 Cache Memory (also called buffer memory) is local memory that reduce waiting times for information stored in RAM (Random Access Memory).  In effect the computer’s main memory is slower than that of the processor.  There are however types of memory that are much faster, but which have a greatly increased cast.  The solution is greatly increased cost.  The solution is therefore to include the type of local memory close to the processor and to temporarily store to primary data to proceed in it, recent model computer have many different level of cache memory. 

Level Cache Memory-  This is directly integrated into the processor.  It is subdivided in to the two ports.

The first is the instructions cache which contains instructions from the RAM that have been decoded they came across the pipelines.

The second ports are data cache which contain daya from the RAM and data recently used during processor operations.

Level 1 cache memory canbe accessed very rapidly.  Access waiting time approach that are internal process registers.

Level 2 cache Memory (called L2 cache for L2 cache)-  This is located in the cache along with the processor(in the chip).  The level cac he2 is an intermediately between the processor, with its internal cache, and the RAM.  It can be accessed more rapidly than the level 1` cache.

Level 3 Cache Memory(called level 3 cache for Level 3 Cache)-   This is located on motherboard all these level of cache reduce the latency time of various memory type when processing as transferring information while the processor works the level one cache controller to transfer information without impeding the processor.  As well the level 2 cache interface with the RAM (Level three cache) to allow transfers without impeding normal processor.

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Network Card

A network interface card (NIC) is a circuit board or card that is installed in a computer so that it can be connected to a network. 

A network interface card provides the computer with a dedicated, full-time connection to a network. Personal computers and workstations on a local area network (LAN) typically contain a network interface card specifically designed for the LAN transmission technology 

Input/Output Address

All computers have number of I/O devices attached to them such as printers, scanners, floppy drives, hard disks, and just about every other component you can think of Each of these devices requires a unique I/O
address.  An I/O address is the hexadecimal address of an area of memory that is used by the peripheral device to exchange information with other device in the system.  You can think of it as a kind of mail slot for the device.

I/O Address	Device
1F0-1F8	Hard disk Controller
200-207	Game I/O
278-27F	Parallel Port (LPT2)
2F8-2FF	Serial Port (COM2)
320-32F	Hard drive Controller,8 bit ISA
378-37F	Parallel Port (LPT1)
3B0-3BF	Monochrome Graffics Adapter
3D0-3DF	Color Graphics Adapter
3F0-3F7	Floppy Drive controller
3F8-3FF	Serial Port (COM1)

Not only does each component require an I/O address, but each component must use a unique I/O address.  This means that when a new device such as a network card or modem is installed in the system, I cannot be assigned an I/O address already being used by another device,  If two devices are assigned the same I/O address, one or both devices will fail to function. 

PORTS

Ports  refer to physical connector the system uses to communicate with other system devices.  Ports of this nature carry names such as COM1 or COM4,and are used by devices like the mouse or modem to communicate with the system.  Another port type, LPT  ports, can be used by printers to facilities  communication between the printer and the computer. 

BIOS

The BIOS Firmware is  stored in the complementary metal oxide semiconductor a special chip on the motherboard that holds the various BIOS settings.  These settings include things like the parameters for the hard disks, the boot order, and the status (either enabled or disabled) of on board devices.  Because BIOS is firmware.  It can be updated, though it requires a special program to achieve this,  The process of upgrading the BIOS is referred to as flashing.  The BIOS can be flashed to provide additional functionality or to correct a problem with the current version of the  BIOS.  The procedure for upgrading the BIOS is covered later in this chapter.

Firmware

Firmware is a program(Software) That is store on a chip(Hardware) but is not considered to be hardware and software.  In other words, it is between hardware and software--in between hard and soft comes firm.
The terms BIOS  and firmware have been used interchangeably and serve to confuse the issue. Firmware simply refers to the programs the are stored in chips and not on hard disks or other such devices.    

Integrated Circuit

Integrated Circuits play a very important part in electronics. Most are specially made for a specific task and contain up to thousands of transistors, diodes and resistors. Special purposes IC's such as audio-amplifiers, FM radios, logic blocks, regulators and even a whole Micro Computer in the form of a micro controller can be fitted inside a tiny package.  

                                                     

                                                                   

Front Side Bus Or System Bus

The bus that connects the CPU to Main Memory on the Mother board. I/O buses, which connect the CPU with the systems other components, branch off of the system bus.

The system bus is also called the front side bus, memory bus, local bus, or host bus.

North Bridge

The North bridge is the chip or chips that connect a CPU to Memory, the PCI Bus, Level 2 cache and AGP activities. The North bridge chips communicate with the CPU through the FSB.

The North bridge chip is one of two chips that control the functions of the chip set. The other is the South Bridge. The  can consist of more than one discrete chip while the South bridge is typically only one discrete chip.

Switch Mode Power Supply

“SWITCH-MODE POWER SUPPLY” is work of four types.

1.     ac-dc conversion called rectification

2.     ac-ac conversion ,

3.     dc-ac conversion and

4.     dc-dc conversion.

1.     A switch mode power dc output voltage using a circuit known as Buck Converter or Step-Down SMPS,

2.     step up an unregulated dc input voltage to produce a regulated dc output voltage using a circuitknown as Boost Converter or Step-Up SMPS,

3.     step up or step down an unregulated dc input voltage to produce a regulated dc output voltage ,

4.     invert the input dc voltage using usually a circuit such as the Cuk converter, and

5.     produce multiple dc outputs using a circuit such as the fly-back converter.

A switch mode power supply is a widely used circuit nowadays and it is used in a system such as a computer, television  receiver, battery charger etc. The switching frequency is usually above 20 kHz, so that the noise produced by it is above the audio range. It is also used to provide a variable dc voltage to armature of a dc motor in a variable speed drive. It is used in a high-frequency unity-power factor circuit. 
  

Processor

Processor Packaging

• Present time commonly used processor form factors are the pin grid array (PGA) processor packaging and the Single Edge Contact Cartridge (SECC).
• PGA processors plug directly into the motherboard using zero-insertion-force (ZIF) sockets.
• SECC cartridges are mounted into an integrated circuit board or “slot” on the motherboard.

Intel Processors

• MMX was introduced with the Pentium processor and consists of 57 processor instructions geared specifically toward the improvement of sound and video processing. Table A-10 lists additional characteristics of Intel processors.

 Summary of Intel Processors

Processor	Form Factor	Voltage	Speeds	L1 Cache (KB)	L2 Cache (KB)	Socket
Pentium	273- or 296-pin      PGA	3.3 or 5	60–233 MHz	16	256–512 (On motherboard)	Socket 4, 5, or 7
Pentium Pro	387-pin PGA	3.1 or 3.3	150–200 MHz	16	256–1 MB (Integrated cache)	Socket 8
Pentium II	242-pin SEC	3.3	233–400 MHz	32	512 (Integrated cache)	Slot 1
Pentium III	242-pin SECC or 370-pin PGA	1.3–2.05	450 MHz– 1.3 GHz and higher	32	256–512 (Integrated cache)	Slot 1 or PGA 370
Celeron	SEPP or 370-pin PGA	1.3–2.05	Up to 2.2 GHz	16–32	0–512	Socket 370, Slot 1
Pentium 4	478-pin or 423-pin PGA	1.1–1.8	1.7–2.8 GHz	8	256–512	PGA 478 or PGA 423
Itanium	Slot M	1.7	733–800 MHz	32	96	Slot M

AMD Processors

• K6-II Are available in a variety of clock speeds up to 550 MHz. The K6-II provided support for 3DNow! and used a Socket7/Super7 motherboard interface. All K6-II processors use 3.3 volts.
• K6-III Offers 64-KB L1 cache and a full-speed 256-KB L2 cache. Designed to fit into a Socket7/Super7 motherboard, the K6-III supports a 100-MHz bus speed and comes with 3DNow! support.
• Duron The Duron processor is currently available in speeds up to 1.3 GHz. The Duron includes a 128-KB L1 cache and a 64-KB L2 cache, which is synchronized to the processor speed and supports 3DNow! and SIMD instruction sets, providing increased capabilities in graphic and audio applications.
• Athlon The Athlon utilizes Socket A motherboard connections. The Athlon has 128 KB of L1 cache and 256 KB of L2 cache, all of which runs at full CPU speed.
• AMD processors, all the way to the recent AMD K6-III, continue to utilize the original socket 7 form factor.

Cyrix Processors

• The 6x86-P Cyrix processors ranged from 120 to 200 MHz, and functioned at roughly the same speeds as the Pentium equivalents. Cyrix still makes a few lower-end CPUs such as the Cyrix M-II, which like the AMD processors, uses a socket 7 form factor. Another Cyrix processor, the VIA C3, uses a Socket 370 ZIF socket.

Intel Hub Architecture

Short for "Intel Hub Architecture" IHA is the replacement for the north bridge and south bridge found on computer motherboard.   The IHA is found on all of Intel's 800 series chip sets, and much like the processor, the IHA has two ports, the GMCH and the ICH.

GMCH (Graphic Memory Control Hub)-  The GMCH or graphic and AGP Memory control Hub for short is similar to the north bridge and helps control the AGP and memory.

ICH (Intel Control Hub)-  The ICH or I/O controller hub for short is similar to the South bridge and is responsible for the I/O ports and PCI controller.

South Bridge

The south bridge is an integrated circuit on the Motherboard that is responsible for the hard-drive controller I/O controller and integrated hardware such as sound card video card if present on the motherboard USB PCI IDE BIOS and Ethernet.  The south bridge gets its name for common being south of the PCI bus.

      Although the south bridge handles a lot of the I/O devices, slower and less prominent input/output devices, such ass the serial port keyboard, and Non USB Mouse are handed by the super Input/Output.

Note:     Some newer chip set are combing the south bridge and super I/O chip in o a single chip and reffering to this chip as the super south bridge chip.  some manufacturers such as Nvida and SIS have ever combined the north bridge south bridge and super Input/Output in to a single chip.

Memory

Random Access Memory is an essential part of every PC system RAM stores information temporarily so that it can be used and accessed by the components of the system.

         When working with RAM there are two distinct types that you will encounter.  Static RAM (SRAM)
and dynamic RAM .  SRAM is costly then DRAM is used for cache memory in systems.  DRAM which has become very affordable in recent years, is now cheap enough to make it possible to use it in large quantities in PC system.

SIMM(Single Inline Memory Module)-   There are two type of SIMMs 30-pin and 72-pin.  The 30-pin units, which were introduced first transfer data 8 bit at a time.  The 72- pin SIMMs transfer data 32 bits at a time.  The 72-Pin SIMMs apart from having 42 pin is 1.25 inches longer then the 30-pin SIMMs at 4.25 inches.

DIMM(Dynamic Inline Memory Module)-  Most DIMMs have 168- pin are installed vartically and are secured by cache that engage the module at each end.  DIMM use a 64 bits data bus.  DDR SD RAM uses 184-pin DIMMs.

MEMORY TYPE-

Fast Page Mode RAM-  FPM use a 25-Mhz clock rae and a maximum bandwidth of 200 Mbps.  FPM RAM employs sophisticated method of locating data within RAM.

Extended Out Data Out RAM-  EDO RAM is suppor s a clock rae of 40 MHz and a maximum bandwidth of 320 Mbps.

Synchronous DRAM-  SD RAM comes in variety of speeds so that the memory canbe purchased to match the speed of the system bus in which it will be installed, curently SD RAM is available in PC66 PC 100 and PC133 versions.  These versions offer the same data rates as their names and offer 528 Mbps 800 Mbps and 1.1 Gbps for PC100 and 2.1 Gbps for PC 133.

Ram Bus DRAM-  RDRAM was brought to the PC memory market through a joint venture between RAM bus and Intel.  RD RAM operates at up to 800 MHz and has a maximum bandwidth of 1.6 Gbps.  RDRAM acchieves these very high lavels data through put by using a system called double clocking.

VRAM-  Video RAM is specilized memory that is use for video card and not as part of the system's main memory VRAM is known as duel- ported memory because it is able o write both of its input/output (I/O) ports at the same times.  This allow to simultaneously refresh the screen while text and images are drawn in memory.

WRAM-  Window RAM is used to inhanced video performance. Also like VRAM WRAM can be written to and read from simultaneously and is much faster then its predecessor, VRAM.

SG RAM-   Synchronous graphics RAM (SG RAM) is used on video cards to increase graphics performance.

IDE Connector(Integrate Device Electronics)

Now-a-days floppy drive and IDE connectors are built directly on the motherboard.  Most board will typically have slots for two IDE connections, primary and secondry is used for secondary ROM.  The floppy drive connector is usually located close to the IDE connectors.  

Complementry Metal Oxide Semiconductor

On each every Motherboard there is a CMOS battery responsible for providing power to the CMOS battery responsible for providing power to the CMOS so that it can retain the system settings When power off.  On older motherboard and not easily changed.  Modern motherboard include an easy to replace 3 volt watch  type battery.  Locating the CMOS Battery on any board is not a difficult task.

Expension Slots

Expansion Slots is a slots located inside a computer on the motherboard or raiserboard that allows additional board to be connected to it.  For example  if you wanted to install a new video card and install that card into the compatible expansion slots.

AGP Slots (Accelerated Graphic Port)-  AGP is a advance port designed for video cards and 3D accelerators.  Design by Intel and introduced in August 1997.  AGP introduce point to point channel that allow the graphics controller direct access the system memory.  Below is an  illustration of what the AGP slot may look like on your motherboard.

AMR- AMR(Audio-Modem Raiser)is sort for Audio/Modem raiser and allows OEMs to make one card that has the funstionality of either modem or audio or both audio or modem on one card.

CNR(Communication and Network Raiser)-  Short of Communication and Network Raiser is a specification that support audio modem USB and Local Area Networking Interface of core logic Chipset.
The technology and the CNR slots was first introduce by 'Intel" February 7 2002 and was mainly developed by leading Hardware and Software developers who helped released the AMR (Audio Modem Raiser).  Today this slots is no longer found on motherboard.
MCA(Micro Channel Architucture)-  The MCA bus was first to offer a 32 bit bus and was inended to replace the older AT-ISA  16-bit bus .  Although it did improve on the 16 bit bus,MCA was made to be in compatible withISA cords, and this perhaps was one of the reasons why it never really caught on.

EISA(Extended Industry Standard Architucture)-  The EISA bus was designed to compatible with the older ISA Expension cards meaning that both the origional 8 bit and 16 bit interface card worked in the EISA slots.  EISA Slots were used primarily in 80386 and 80486 computer and are not seen in our modem computer.

VL BUS(Visa Local Bus)-  The Visa Local Bus was used primary with the 386 and 4967 types of Computers, and it was designed for used in systems with a single processor.  The VL Bus enhanced the performance of high speed devices such as video controllers.  In terms of performance running at an unprecedented 33 MHz.  the VL Bus represented significant improvements over the older ISA bus.

PCI(Peripheral Component Interconnect)-  The PCI Bus is used in both PC and makintosh Computers and like the VL Bus provide a high-speed data path between peripheral devices and the CPU.  The PCI bus supports 33bits and 64bits data path using bus mastering additional features of the PCI bus include support for plug- and-play devices and for sharing of IRQs, helping to allviate the prlblem of the limied number of IRQs available on a system.

PCIX(Peripheral Component Interconnect Extended)-   The PCIx bus promises to be backward compatible with older PCI devices.  Using a 64bit data path and running at a clock speed of 133 MHz, the PCIx bus increase transfer speed from 132 Mbps to rather impressive 1 gigabyte per second.

Computer's Motherboard

The Motherboard is a printed circuit board that is the foundation of the computer and allow the CPU RAM and all other computer hardware components to function and communicate with each other of four type.

XT MOTHERBOARD-  XT stand for extended technology there are all old model Motherboard.  In this motherboard we find old model processor socket LIF (low insertion force) sockets, RAM slots DIMMs and ISA (Industry standard Architecture) slots, 12 pin Power Connector Port.
   
     They have slot type processor Dimms Memory Modules, ISA slots for add - on - cord, and no port.
There are connectors and add-on-cords for ports.

     EXAMPLE-   Pentium1 , PentiumMMX, PentiumII,

AT MOTHERBOARD- At stand for smart technology advance technology motherboard have PGA(Pin Grid Array) socket. SD slots and ISA slots we find above components on AT Motherboard.
 
     EXAMPLE-  PentiumIII

BABY AT MOTHERBOARD- Baby AT Motherboard have the combination of XT and AT Motherboard.  They have both slots type processor socket SD RAM slots and DDR RAM salots, PCI slots and ISA slots, 12 pin power connector on ports.

    EXAMPLE- Pentium III and Pentium V

ATX MOTHERBOARD- ATX stand for Advance technology extended latest motherboard all are called as ATX Motherboard design by ATX form factors.  In this motherboard we find MPGA processor sockets DDR RAM slots PCI slots AGP slots, primary and secondary IDE interface SATA (Serial Advance Technology Attachment) Connector 20 pin and 24 pin ATX power connector and ports.

computer

Modern computers are electronics and digital.  The actual machinery-wire transistors, and circuits is called hardware the instructions and data are called software.

 All general-purpose computers require the following hardware components.